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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………… I
TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………… III
LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………… VIII
LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………………….. XI
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ………………………………………… XII
SUMMARY ……………………………………………………………. XIII
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………. 1
1.1. The decline of natural forest resources, orientation of difficulty and development in Vietnam ………………………………………………..
1
1.1.1. Decline of forest resources …………………………………….. 1
1.1.2. Difficulties in forestry management ………………………….... 1
1.1.3. Management strategies ………………………………………… 2
1.2. Forest structure role ………………………………………………… 3
1.3. Forest restoration in Vietnam …………………………………… . .. 4
1.4. Importance of old-growth and secondary forests ………………….. 4
1.5. Aims, scope and hypotheses …………………………………… …. 6
1.5.1. Aims ………………………………………………………….... 6
1.5.1.1. General objective ………………………………………… . 6
1.5.1.2. Specific objective ………………………………………….. 6
1.5.2. Scope …………………………………………………………... 6
1.5.3. Hypotheses …………………………………………………….. 6
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW …………………………… 8
2.1. Tropical forest structure analysis ………………………………….. 8
2.1.1. History …………………………………………………………. 8
2.1.1.1. Overstorey …………………………………………………. 8
2.1.1.2. Regeneration ……………………………………………….. 12
2.1.2. Structural attributes of tropical forests ………………………… 13
2.1.2.1. Overstorey …………………………………………………. 14
a. Analyzed attributes …………………………………………… . 14
b. Relevant attributes to this study …………………………. …… 15
2.1.2.2. Regeneration ………………………………………………. 21
2.2. Secondary tropical forest restoration ……………………………… 22
2.2.1. Strategies for secondary forest restoration …………………….. 23
2.2.1.1. Protection and natural recovery ……………………………. 24
2.2.1.2. Natural regeneration management …………………………. 24
a. Growing conditions and yield of desirable regeneration improvement ………………………………. ……………………..
24
b. Desirable regeneration assistance ……………… ……………... 25
2.2.1.3. Accelerated Natural Regeneration (ANR) …………………. 25
2.2.1.4. Enrichment planting ………………………………………… 25
2.2.1.5. The framework species method …………………………….. 26
2.2.1.6. Maximum diversity planting method ………………………. 26
CHAPTER III: MATERIAL …………………………………………. 27
3.1. Natural conditions of the study area ……………………………….. 27
3.1.1 Geographic location, boundaries and area of Kon Ka Kinh national park ……………………………………………………………. 27
3.1.2. Topography, geology and soil …………………………………. 28
3.1.2.1. Topography ………………………………………………… 28
3.1.2.2. Geology and soil …………………………………………… 29
3.1.3. Climate and hydrology ………………………………………… 30
3.1.3.1. Climate …………………………………………………….. 30
3.1.3.2. Hydrology …………………………………………………. 31
3.2. Vegetation in Kon Ka Kinh national park ………………………… 31
3.2.1. The area of land use types …………………………………….. 31
3.2.2. Plant biodiversity ……………………………………………… 33
3.2.3. The flora and forest vegetation ………………………………... 33
3.2.3.1. Flora ……………………………………………………….. 33
3.2.3.2. Forest vegetation …………………………………………... 34
3.2.3.3. History of forest exploitation in the park ………………….. 35
3.3. Assessing the natural conditions and vegetation of the park ……… 37
3.4. Population, ethnicity and labor ……………………………………. 38
3.4.1. Population ……………………………………………………... 38
3.4.2. Labor and ethnicity ……………………………………………. 39
3.4.3. Poverty status ………………………………………………….. 40
3.5. Forest resources classification ……………………………………... 40
3.5.1. The Loeschau’s classification system ………………………….. 40
3.5.2. The relationship between forest types with development phases.. 42
CHAPTER IV: METHODOLOGY ………………………………….. 45
4.1. Plot establishment method …………………………………………. 45
4.2. Data collection method …………………………………………….. 47
4.2.1. Data collection for overstorey stem maps ……………………... 47
4.2.1.1. Tree data collection ………………………………………... 47
4.2.1.2. Tree positions ……………………………………………… 50
4.2.1.3. Gap inventory ……………………………………………… 51
4.2.2. Data collection for regeneration ……………………………….. 52
4.3. Data analysis method ………………………………………………. 55
4.3.1. Applied methods for the upper layer …………………………... 55
4.3.1.1. Stand information ………………………………………….. 55
a. Calculation for each tree ……………………………………….. 55
b. Calculation for a stand …………………………………………. 55
4.3.1.2. Descriptive statistics for height and diameter variables ……. 56
a. Central tendency ……………………………………………….. 56
b. Dispersion and variability ……………………………………… 56
c. Measures of distribution shape ………………………………… 57
4.3.1.3. Linear mixed-effects analysis ……………………………… 59
a. Applications with this study and data arrangement ……………. 60
b. Homoscedasticity checking ……………………………………. 61
c. Checking autocorrelation ………………………………………. 63
d. Checking normal distribution of the residuals …………………. 66
e. Model selection and information summary ……………………. 67
4.3.1.4. Frequency distribution …………………………………….. 68
a. Generating frequency distributions ……………………………. 68
b. Frequency distribution difference testing ……………………… 69
4.3.1.5. Diameter-height regression analysis ………………………. 70
a. Used function forms …………………………………………… 70
b. Theoretical calculations ……………………………………….. 71
c. Model selection ………………………………………………... 73
4.3.1.6. Gap analysis ……………………………………………….. 74
a. Descriptive statistics for gaps ………………………………….. 74
b. Calculating the gap area proportion for each forest type ………. 74
c. Gap size frequency distribution ………………………………... 74
d. Gap size frequency distribution difference testing …………….. 75
4.3.1.7. Spatial point patterns of tree species ……………………….. 75
a. Applications ……………………………………………………. 76
b. Tree density analysis …………………………………………… 77
c. Testing for randomness ………………………………………… 78
d. Comparing point pattern variation ……………………………… 83
e. Testing the difference between forest types ……………………. 84
4.3.1.8. Overstorey tree species diversity analysis …………………. 85
a. Richness and species importance value index (SIVI) ………….. 85
b. Species diversity index ………………………………………… 86
c. Species accumulation curve ……………………………………. 88
d. Biodiversity index comparison ………………………………… 88
e. Tree species diversity comparison ……………………………... 89
4.3.2. Regenerating tree storey structure analysis ……………………. 90
4.3.2.1. Frequency distribution of regeneration ……………………. 90
4.3.2.2. Height frequency distribution difference testing ………….. 91
4.3.2.3. Biodiversity indices for regeneration ……………………… 91
4.3.2.4. Biodiversity index comparison by using LMM …………… 91
4.3.2.5. Regeneration species diversity comparison ……………….. 91
4.3.2.6. Regeneration spatial distribution checking ………………… 91
a. Nonrandomness index …………………………………………. 91
b. Nonrandomness index value comparison ……………………… 92
CHAPTER V: RESULTS …………………………………………….. 93
5.1. Overstorey structure analysis results ………………………………. 93
5.1.1. Stand information ……………………………………………… 93
5.1.2. Descriptive statistics results ……………………………………. 95
5.1.3. Linear mixed effect model results ……………………………… 97
5.1.3.1. Box plots for the diameter and height variables ……………. 97
5.1.3.2. Model analysis and adaptation ……………………………... 97
5.1.3.3. Model parameter estimation ………………………………... 100
5.1.4. Frequency distributions ………………………………………… 101
5.1.4.1. Frequency distribution results for both types ………………. 101
5.1.4.2. Frequency distribution difference ………………………….. 107
5.1.5. Diameter-height regression results …………………………….. 107
5.1.5.1. Estimated parameters ………………………………………. 107
5.1.5.2. Model selection …………………………………………….. 110
5.1.5.3. Regression charts …………………………………………… 110
5.1.6. Gap analysis ……………………………………………………. 116
5.1.6.1. Gap descriptive information ……………………………….. 116
5.1.6.2. Gap area ratio ………………………………………………. 117
5.1.6.3. Gap size frequency distribution ……………………………. 117
5.1.6.4. Gap size frequency distribution difference testing results …. 120
5.1.7. Spatial distribution analysis ……………………………………. 120
5.1.7.1. Density testing results ……………………………………… 120
5.1.7.2. Randomness checking results ……………………………… 122
5.1.7.3. Variation difference between two types …………………… 123
5.1.7.4. Point pattern difference testing between two types ………… 124
5.1.8. Overstorey species diversity analysis results …………………… 125
5.1.8.1. Richness, SIVI and biodiversity indices …………………… 125
5.1.8.2. Biodiversity index comparison by using LMM ……………. 127
5.1.8.3. Tree species diversity comparison …………………………. 127
5.2. Regeneration storey structure analysis results ……………………… 128
5.2.1. Height frequency distribution ………………………………….. 128
5.2.2. Height frequency distribution difference testing ……………….. 130
5.2.3. Biodiversity index for regeneration ……………………………. 131
5.2.4. Biodiversity index difference comparison ……………………… 133
5.2.5. Regeneration species diversity comparison ……………………. 133
5.2.6. Regeneration spatial distribution ………………………………. 134
5.2.6.1. Nonrandomness index results ……………………………… 134
5.2.6.2. Nonrandomness index value testing results ……………….. 134
CHAPTER VI: DISCUSSION ………………………………………… 135
6.1. Overstorey structure differentiation ………………………………... 135
6.1.1. Structure and spatial distribution difference …………………… 135
6.1.1.1. Stand information ………………………………………….. 135
6.1.1.2. Statistical descriptions for diameter and height ……………. 136
6.1.1.3. Diameter and height growth difference testing by linear mixed effect models ……………………………………………….. 137
6.1.1.4. Frequency distribution dissimilarity ……………………….. 138
6.1.1.5. Diameter-height regression ………………………………… 139
6.1.1.6. Canopy gaps ………………………………………………… 140
6.1.1.7. Spatial distribution patterns ………………………………… 141
6.1.2. Biodiversity distinction of overstorey trees ……………………. 143
6.2. Regeneration dissimilarity …………………………………………. 145
6.2.1. Density and frequency distribution …………………………….. 145
6.2.2. Biodiversity indices ……………………………………………. 146
6.2.3. Spatial distribution of regeneration ……………………………. 147
6.3. Proposing restoration measures ……………………………………. 147
6.4. Improved points in this research …………………………………… 150
CHAPTER VII: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION …... 152
7.1. Conclusion …………………………………………………………. 152
7.2. Suggestions for further research …………………………………… 154
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………… 156
APPENDIX …………………………………………………………….. 180
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